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(Source: http://www.pafb.af.mil/DEOMI/hisp.htm)

PREFACE

LCDR James G. Foggo, III, USN, assigned to the USS M. G. Vallejo, served as a participant in the Topical Research Intern Program at the Defense Equal Opportunity Management Institute from March 1, 1993, to March 26, 1993, and conducted the research to update this report. The Institute thanks LCDR Foggo for his contributions to the program.

INTRODUCTION

What does the term "Hispanic" mean to you? Until the 1970 census, Hispanics were virtually ignored as an individual subset of the population. Demographers Valdivieso and Davis provide the following explanation:

In 1960, the Bureau of the Census identified the Hispanic-American population as "white persons of Spanish surname." In this day and age, such a reference seems ludicrous. How then should we define the Hispanic population? Should Hispanics be lumped into one group such as "those who speak Spanish," "those with Spanish surnames," or "those who come from Spain or Latin America"? It must be remembered that Hispanics may be of any race and have a multi-cultural ethnic identity. According to Yehudi Webster, author of The Racialization of America, the term Hispanic implies:

It was not until the 1970 census that the concept of reporting on Hispanics as a distinct group existed and then only in a 5 percent sample of the census questionnaires distributed. The 1980 Census was the first to use the "Spanish origin or descent" question on 100 percent of the questionnaires. The 1990 census attempted to provide Hispanics in the United States with a more detailed identity. In the 1990 census, those surveyed were asked to classify themselves as Hispanic if:

Furthermore, those responding in the affirmative were asked to categorize themselves as either Mexican, Mexican-American or Chicano, Puerto Rican, Cuban, or other.

Despite these additional questions, Hispanic interest groups felt cheated. The Texas Civil Rights Project and the Mexican-American Legal Defense and Educational Fund were two of the first civil rights groups to bring a law suit against the state of Texas demanding an increase in the head count of Hispanics. The purpose of such a lawsuit was to ensure that Hispanics would not be shorted politically since census numbers are used to redraw political boundaries. (11:A-1)

The U.S. Hispanic population has grown tremendously in the past decade and demographers predict this trend will continue well into the next century. Whereas 1980 Census figures show the presence of almost 15 million Hispanics in the United States, this number has increased to 22.5 million in 1990, indicating a 50 percent increase in one decade. Because a significant portion of the Hispanic population are migrant farm workers and illegal aliens, 1990 figures may be underestimated by as much as 7 percent.

The Hispanic population is expected to exceed 30 million by the year 2010. Blacks are expected to number 38.8 million in the year 2010. In arriving at these numbers, the Census Bureau makes a number of key assumptions. Should the census of the year 2000 or 2010 eliminate inaccuracies or undercounting and should the Hispanic population continue to grow at or greater than the current rate, Hispanics may well overtake Blacks as the largest minority group in the 21st century.

This growth may have a profound effect on the Armed Forces. Department of Defense studies indicate that the non-Hispanic recruitment pool for the military should decline until 1995. As portrayed in this pamphlet, Hispanics have enjoyed a rich military heritage in the defense of this nation, yet currently Hispanics make up only 3 percent of the Armed Forces. Furthermore, of all Hispanics in uniform, females represent only 4 percent. At their current rate of growth, Hispanics will be a rich service resource for recruitment in the 1990s.

It is important to have an understanding of the history, contributions, current conditions, and issues for Hispanics in the United States and in the military service. This paper will explore population, language, family structure and marriage, education, economics, famous Hispanic contributors and contributions, and military participation of Hispanics.

Because the Bureau of Census can be somewhat stifling in its presentation of data, the Statistical Handbook on U.S. Hispanics (see bibliography) is a highly recommended resource for understanding the statistical data base on the Hispanic minority in this country.

POPULATION/HEALTH

- The U.S. Bureau of the Census reported 9.0 million Hispanics* in 1970, 14.6 million in 1980, and 20.5 million in 1989. This represents a 39 percent increase in the Hispanic population as opposed to an overall population increase of 7.4 percent and an 11.4 percent increase among Blacks. (9:2) - This growth rate during the 80's was the result of a substantial immigration from South Central America (67 percent), Mexico (30 percent), Puerto Rico (14 percent) and Cuba (12 percent), a high fertility rate among Hispanic women, and improved census techniques. (9:2)

- In 1988, Hispanic women had 11 percent of all recorded births in the United States, but represented only 8 percent of all women 18 to 44 years old. Fertility rates were higher among Mexican and Puerto Rican women than among Cuban and other Hispanic women. (9:102)

- By 1990, 61.4 percent (12.6 million) of the Hispanic population was of Mexican origin; 12.1 percent (2.5 million) was of Puerto Rican origin; 12.1 percent (2.5 million) was of Central or South American origin; 5.3 percent (1.1 million) was of Cuban origin; and 7.8 percent (1.6 million) was of "Other Spanish" origin. (9:2)

- The largest number of Hispanics is located in California (34 percent), followed by Texas (21 percent), New York (11 percent), Florida (8 percent) and Illinois (4 percent). (9:2)

* Hispanics are of any race. Whenever Whites or Blacks are referenced, they are of non-Hispanic origin.

- Hispanics tend to migrate toward metropolitan areas and central cities. In 1987, approximately 19 percent of the general population changed residences. The highest mobility rates are for young Americans and especially those migrating to the West and Southwest United States. This figure was 23 percent for Hispanics, 17 percent for Blacks and 18 percent for non-Hispanic Whites. From the concentrations presented above, it can be concluded that Hispanics who are generally younger are more likely to move to the West and Southwest. (9:2)

- In 1990, the top 10 cities (in descending order of size) with Hispanic populations were Los Angeles, New York, Miami, Chicago, Houston, San Antonio, Dallas, San Diego, El Paso, and Phoenix. (16:32)

- The Hispanic population is almost evenly divided between the sexes, 50.1 percent male to 49.9 percent female, as opposed to 48.6 percent male to 51.4 percent female for the total population. (9:2)

- In 1989, the Hispanic population had a median age of 25.9. This compares to a median age of 33.2 for the general U.S. population. Two factors are responsible for the lower median age of Hispanics: the immigration of younger Hispanics, including women in their childbearing years, and a higher fertility rate among Hispanic women than for Black or White women. (9:14)

- During the 1970's, some 650,000 legal immigrants came to the United States from Mexico; however, in 1988 alone 260,000 Hispanics immigrated to the United States, 95,000 of whom were Mexican. (9:20) - Figures for 1989 indicate that 1.7 to 2.9 million illegal aliens reside in the United States. This number is growing at a rate of 100,000 to 200,000 per year. Because of its contiguous border with the United States, Mexico was the largest supplier of undocumented aliens of any country. Additionally, 96 percent of all apprehended illegal aliens were of Mexican origin. (9:20)

FAMILY STRUCTURE AND MARRIAGE

- In 1990, of the 66 million U.S. families, 4.9 million or 7.4 percent were Hispanic. (4:834-835)

- The top ten issues facing the Hispanic community, as ranked by Hispanic elected officials in 1987, are as follows:

1) Access to higher education 2) High school dropouts 3) Drug abuse 4) Latino children in poverty 5) Need for developing civic leadership 6) Government employment for Hispanics 7) Employment discrimination 8) Inadequate health care 9) Housing 10) Rise of an Hispanic underclass (9:63)

- Among Hispanic subgroups, Mexicans and Cubans have the highest proportion of married couple families. (9:33)

- In 1989, of the 3.5 million Hispanic married couple families (MCF), 41.8 percent owned their own homes, 58.2 percent did not. These percentages correspond almost exactly to Black MCF's. (16:47)

- In 1990, female Hispanic householders with no husband present represented 1.2 million or 24.4 percent of Hispanic households as compared to 45.9 percent for Blacks. (4:835)

- Among Hispanics, the proportion of families headed by women was higher for Puerto Ricans than for other subgroups. (9:33)

- The divorce rate among Hispanics is lower than that of the overall population; however, they are more likely to be married but not living with their spouse. Twenty-six percent of Hispanic women who had a child in 1987 were not married a year later. (9:33)

LANGUAGE

- According to 1980 Census figures, one of every 20 Americans (11 million persons), above the age of four, spoke Spanish at home. (9:63)

- Of these Spanish-speakers, about 25 percent, or 2.7 million persons, indicated during the Census that they did not speak English well or at all. (9:63)

EDUCATION

- Although there have been increases in the educational attainment of Hispanics during the decade of the 1980's, Hispanics still lag behind the national educational average. The proportion of high school dropouts 18 to 21 years old was more than twice that of non-Hispanics in 1986. (9:79)

- Only 24.5 percent of Hispanics ages 3 and 4 are enrolled in preschool programs. Furthermore, 78.6 percent of 16- and 17-year- old Hispanics attend high school compared to a national average of 91.6 percent. (7:A3)

- While 11.6 percent of the overall population does not go beyond the eighth grade, this is true for 34 percent of Hispanics. (16:38-40)

- In 1989, 51 percent of Hispanics, ages 25 and over, were high school graduates. This compared with the national average of 77 percent. (16:38-40)

- Twenty-one percent of the national population has obtained four or more years of college training, compared to 9.9 percent of the Hispanic population. (16:38-40)

- There are marked differences in the educational attainment of Hispanic subgroups. While 19.8 percent of Cubans were college graduates, only 6.1 percent of Mexican-Americans and 9.8 percent of Puerto Ricans had reached this educational level. (16:38-40)

- Only 1.7 percent of the full-time instructional faculty in institutions of higher education are of Hispanic origin. (9:79)

- 56 percent of all Hispanic adults are functionally illiterate. (11)

ECONOMICS

- In 1989, Hispanics represented 7.3 percent of the U.S. civilian labor force. This was an increase from the 1982 figure of 5.4 percent. (16:395)

- However, during the same year, when the total U.S. unemployment rate was 5.3 percent, the rate for Hispanics was 8.0. (16:38-40)

- The labor force participation for Hispanic women increased from 41 percent in 1973 to 53.5 percent in 1989. (16:38-40)

- In 1989, Hispanics occupied only 3.7 percent of the managerial and professional specialities in the job market as opposed to 6.1 percent for Blacks. (16:395)

- Figures for 1989 showed almost 50 percent of the Hispanic labor force served as operators, fabricators, laborers and in technical/administrative services support jobs. (16:385)

- Twelve percent of the overall agricultural work force is made up of Hispanics. (9:148)

- In 1989, Hispanic married couple families (MCF) earned median weekly salaries of $520/week as opposed to $579/week for Blacks and $712/week for Whites. (16:416)

- The percentage of Hispanics living in poverty was 24.3 percent in 1969 and 28.1 percent in 1990. The 1990 figure was almost three times the percent of Whites living in poverty (10.7 percent), but lower than the 31.9 percent figure for Blacks. (4:830)

- The family income gap between Hispanics and Whites appears to be widening. Hispanics are three times more likely to receive some form of public assistance that non-Hispanic Whites. (9:184)

- Only 50 percent of Hispanic households own any interest- earning assets as compared with 75 percent of Whites and 44 percent of Blacks. (9:184)

- According to the Census Bureau's 1987 economic survey, Hispanic-owned business increased by 81 percent over 1982 figures. Nevertheless, although Hispanics represent almost 10 percent of the population, fewer than 3 percent of U.S. businesses were owned by Hispanics. Based on total receipts, Hispanic businesses were only one-third of the average size of other businesses. (10:321)

- According to USA Today, the ten states with the most Hispanic businesses are listed in order of most to least: California, Texas, Florida, New York, New Mexico, Arizona, New Jersey, Colorado, Illinois, Washington. (12:4B)

- On a positive note, since 1980, the Hispanic white-collar work force increased from 35 percent to almost 40 percent while the blue-collar work force decreased from 45 percent to 37 percent. (9:148)

FAMOUS HISPANIC CONTRIBUTORS AND CONTRIBUTIONS

Hispanic Americans made significant contributions to the development of our great nation even before the days of Admiral David Farragut and the Civil War. Farragut's father, a Spaniard, came to America in 1776 and fought for this country during the American Revolution and the War of 1812.

More recently, Hispanics have made their mark in politics, public service, the entertainment industry, organized sports, business, and science, as well as the military service. In the November 1992 elections, because of redistricting and a greater political awareness, Hispanics counted an unprecedented number of 18 members of Congress and two delegates within their ranks. The eight new freshmen congressmen overcame overwhelming odds in some cases to win in '92. This includes California Representative Lucille Roybal-Allard (the eldest daughter of Representative Edward Roybal), who is the first Hispanic woman to directly follow her father in Congress, from an entirely different district. Other historical political firsts are discussed below. It is important to remember that with their representation almost doubled since the last federal election, Hispanics now have twice the political clout.

Henry Cisneros, former Mayor of San Antonio, Texas, is a member of the Clinton administration, holding the cabinet post of Secretary of Housing and Urban Development.

In the entertainment world, Hispanic Americans came to the forefront in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Edward James Olmos, known for his role on the television show Miami Vice, launched a successful movie career and also starred in Stand and Deliver, a movie about Los Angeles educator Jaime Escalante, and American Me, which concerns crime and violence in the Hispanic community. Gloria Estefan is a top contender in the record industry and Rubin Blade recorded his first album in English for non-Hispanic audiences.

In the world of science, Antonia Novello, a distinguished M.D., became the first Hispanic woman Surgeon General of the United States. NASA selected three Hispanic astronauts, including the first Hispanic woman astronaut, Ellen Ochoa.

Like David Farragut, Hispanics continue to distinguish themselves in the military service of their country. Hispanics have been awarded 39 Medals of Honor to date--more of the nation's highest military honor than any other identifiable group. Some 20,000 Hispanics served in Operation Desert Shield/Storm and many unsung Hispanic heroes emerged from the ground war with Iraq. In his autobiography, General H. Norman Schwarzkopf refers reverently to his former commander, Hispanic General Richard E. Cavazos, USA (Ret.), as one of the finest division commanders that he ever worked for. During Operation Restore Hope, the relief effort in Somalia, this nation mourned for the family of Domingo Arroyo, a Hispanic Marine and the first casualty in the region killed in a firefight with Somali warlords.

Hispanic Americans have made a difference in the history of this country. They leave a proud heritage for the future Hispanic leaders of the 21st century to emulate. Additional noted Hispanic Americans and their contributions are listed below:

-- POLITICS: Nydia Velazquez (first Puerto Rican woman to serve in the House of Representatives); Lincoln Diaz-Balart (Florida Congressman and anti-Castro activist, who is the first member of Congress to be related to Fidel Castro); Robert Menendez (New Jersey Congressman who is the first Cuban-American to serve in the House and first Cuban representative from the state of New Jersey); Ileana Ros-Lehtinen (first Cuban-American woman in the House of Representatives); Luis Gutierrez (Illinois' first Hispanic in Congress); Henry Bonilla (first Republican Congressman from the state of Texas); Frank Tejeda (first member of the 103rd Congress elected when he emerged from the March 1992 filing period unopposed by Democrat or Republican); Bill Richardson (first Hispanic to occupy a leadership position in the House as Chief Deputy Majority Whip); Joseph M. Montoya (U.S. Senator); Dennis Chavez (first American-born Hispanic elected to the U.S. Senate); Herman Badillo (first Puerto Rican elected to the U.S. House of Representatives); Henry Gonzales (Texas Congressman and Chairman of the House Banking Committee); Ed Pastor (first Hispanic Congressman from the state of Arizona); Bob Martinez (former Governor of Florida and head of the Drug Enforcement Agency under President Bush); Raul Castro (Governor of Arizona, resigned in 1977 to accept appointment as U.S. Ambassador to Argentina); Ramona Acosta Banuelos, Katherine D. Ortega, Catalina Vasquez Villalpondo (former U.S. Treasurers); Lena Guerrero (member of the Texas State Legislature and first woman or ethnic minority to be appointed to the Texas Railroad Commission); Xavier Suarez (first Cuban-American mayor of Miami in 1985); Fernando Ferrer (Bronx, N.Y. borough president since 1987, possible candidate in New York City mayoral race); Nelson Merced (first Hispanic elected to the Massachusetts State Legislature); Jose Serrano (Bronx Democratic Congressman and champion of inner-city educational reform); Federico Pena (first Hispanic mayor of Denver); Gloria Molina (first Latina on the City Council of Los Angeles); Lauro Cavazos (first Hispanic to occupy a cabinet position, as Secretary of Education for the Reagan Administration); Bert Corona (Mexican-American Political Associations); Cesar Chavez (United Farm Workers); Jose Angel Gutierrez (La Raza Unida Party); Jerry Apodaca (former Governor of New Mexico); Baltasar Corrada (Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico).

-- SCIENCE: Jaime Escalante (Los Angeles educator credited for his role in improving the math and science skills of Los Angeles-area high school students--the improvement in Escalante's students' scores on the Calculus Advanced Placement Exam for college entrance was so dramatic that the group was accused of cheating by the Educational Testing Service in Princeton, N.J.--the movie Stand and Deliver tells his story); Franklin R. Chang-Diaz, Ellen Ochoa, and Sid Gutierrez (NASA space shuttle astronauts); Luis W. Alvarez (Nobel Prize winner in physics for work with subatomic particles); Severo Ochoa (Nobel Prize winner in medicine and physiology for laboratory synthesis of DNA and RNA).

-- ENTERTAINMENT: Edward James Olmos, Anthony Quinn, Gilbert Roland, Martin Sheen, Raquel Welch, Imogene Coca, Freddie Prinze, Jose Ferrer, Erik Estrada, Paul Rodriguez, Ricardo Montalban, Saundra Santiago, Esai Morales, Marcia Conchita Alonso, Jimmy Smits, Raul Julia (actors/ actresses); Rita Moreno (first Hispanic actress to win an Oscar); Brunilda Ruiz (ballerina); Trini Lopez, Joan Baez, Tony Orlando, Xavier Cugat, Desi Arnaz, Carlos Montoya, Vickie Carr, Chita Rivera, Jose Feliciano, Graciela Rivera, Tito Puente (entertainers); Truman Capote and Anais Nin (authors); Geraldo Rivera (talk show host); Luis Valdez (writer/director of La Bamba--the Richie Valens Story); Lourdes Lopez (principal dancer, New York ballet); John Benitez (record producer best known for producing Madonna's first hit record); Kenny Ortega (choreographer); Ernesto Lecuona (composer); John Secada (musician).

-- SCHOLARS/WRITERS: Nicolas Guillen (poet inspired by African rhythms); Carlos Montenegro (novelist); Wilfredo Lam (painter); Piri Thomas (writer); Eduardo Seda (scholar); Luis Valdez, Guadalupe de Saavedra, Abelardo Delgado (poets); Manuel Martinez (painter); Ernesto Galarza, Octavio Romano, Richard Duran, Julian Samora, George Sanchez (scholars). -- SPORTS: Angelo Cordero (jockey); Chi Chi Rodriguez, Nancy Lopez, Lee Trevino (golf); Jim Plunkett (football); Jose Torres, Hector (Macho) Camacho, Kid Chocolate (boxing); Juan Marichal, Luis Tiant, Pedro Ramos, Orlando Cepeda, Roberto Clemente, Luis Aparicio (baseball); Alberto Salazar (Boston Marathon winner).

-- BUSINESS: Roberto C. Goicueta (former president and current chairman of the board of Coca Cola); Prudencio Unanue (founder of Goya, a corporation producing Hispanic food products); Oscar de la Renta and Adolfo Sardina (fashion designers); Elwood Quesada (first head of the Federal Aviation Agency and former vice- president of Lockheed Aircraft Corporation); Cesar Chavez (head of the National Farm Workers' Association [United Farm Workers of America]).

-- MILITARY: Hispanics have served as general and flag officers in the military. Admiral Horacio Rivero was the first Hispanic four-star admiral in the Navy; General Richard E. Cavazos was the first Hispanic four-star general in the Army; and Lieutenant General Elwood R. Quesada was the first Hispanic general officer in the Air Force. Brigadier General Luis R. Esteves was the first Puerto Rican graduate of West Point and founder of the Puerto Rican National Guard.

- CONTRIBUTIONS

-- Mexicans showed Californians how to pan for gold and introduced the technique of using mercury to separate silver from worthless ores.

-- Certain foods common in the U.S. are of Hispanic origin: tacos, tortillas, Caesar salad, and chili con carne, which was invented about 1880 by Mexican-Americans living in Texas. In 1992, salsa outsold ketchup for the first time in the United States.

-- Some Hispanic words which have become part of the American language: rodeo, cabana, macho, bonanza, mosquito, chocolate, tobacco, adobe, burro, corral, desperado, incommunicado, patio, plaza, poncho, vigilante, cafeteria, canoe, hurricane, cannibal, manatee, tomato, canyon, armada, bronco, and barbecue.

-- Six state names are of Hispanic origin: Texas (from tejas, land of tile roofs), Nevada (land of snow), Colorado (red land), and California (an imaginary island in Spanish folklore, "an earthly paradise"), Montana (mountain), Florida (state of flowers). Throughout the United States there are many cities and towns with Hispanic-origin names. In California, alone, there are more than 400.

-- Other contributions include poinsettias, Chihuahuas, chewing gum, canasta, and rummy.

MILITARY PARTICIPATION

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

- Although Spain was a strong colonial power in North America in the 1700s, the Spanish defeat in the Seven Years War led to the parceling of lands to the English in the Spanish Colony of Florida. Spain, therefore, felt no loyalty to the British Monarchy during the course of the American Revolution. Despite negotiations with the Continental Congress, neither side could agree on the fate of Florida and therefore Spain played no overt role in aiding the American colonists. Nevertheless, several Hispanic forefathers, like the father of David Farragut, provided discrete or covert aid to the colonists. Another such man was Bernardo de Galvez, a Spanish army officer and Governor of Louisiana in 1777.

- From 1775-77, de Galvez provided rations and weapons to the Continental Army. In 1777, he arranged safe passage for James Willing, an American agent of the Continental Congress, who had led a successful campaign along the Mississippi harassing British shipping, plantation owners and military outposts. (18:7)

- Taking advantage of weaknesses in the British defenses and Spanish recognition of American independence in 1779, de Galvez captured all the British forts along the Mississippi from Lake Pontchartrain to Baton Rouge. He later defeated all British forces in Florida and restored control of this region to Spain. For his contribution, de Galvez has been memorialized on a U.S. stamp and a statue in Washington, D.C. and in his namesake city of Galveston, Texas. (18:7-9)

POST REVOLUTIONARY WAR

- One of de Galvez's officers, Franciso de Miranda, also played an important role in the defeat of the British on the Mississippi and the capture of the port of Pensacola. Ultimately a revolutionary himself, de Miranda left the Spanish army and lead a campaign against Spanish colonialism while living in North America and Europe. In 1805, he led an American-sanctioned invasion of Venezuela and is credited with the title of "Precursor of Latin American Independence." (18:9)

- During the 1800s, the sale of all Spanish lands west of the Mississippi to France was made under the proviso that these lands not be in turn relinquished to the United States. France reneged on its agreement and President Jefferson negotiated the Louisiana Purchase for $15 million in 1803. (18:11)

- Hispanic Americans joined General Andrew Jackson in defeating the British during the War of 1812. (18:11)

TEXAS-MEXICAN FRONTIER

- The next conflict involving Hispanics in American history took place over territorial disputes between Mexico and the "Lone Star State" of Texas. When Mexican General and self-proclaimed President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna attacked the Alamo on March 6, 1835, 183 Texans were killed, six of them Mexicans. Of eleven survivors of the battle at the Alamo, ten were Hispanic. (18:13)

- One Hispanic survivor of the Alamo was Lieutenant Colonel John Nepomuncene Seguin. Selected as a courier to leave the fort, sneak through Santa Anna's lines and obtain reinforcements, Seguin succeeded in escaping but could not obtain relief in time. After the war, he returned to San Antonio where he served two terms as the city's mayor. (18:13)

CALIFORNIA-MEXICAN FRONTIER

- One of the most interesting Hispanic figures of this period in American history is Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo. Born of the upper class in 1808, Vallejo grew up during the turbulent years of the Mexican Revolution. An accomplished Mexican army officer by the age of twenty-one, he gained the confidence of the Mexican governor and was named military commander of northern California. During the same period, he became a member of the territorial legislature and delegate to the Mexican Congress. Despite these ties to his native Mexico, Vallejo believed it would be in the best interests of the California territories to yield their sovereignty to the United States. He shifted loyalties and discretely helped Americans secure California. Later appointed as an agent for the U.S. government, he became one of eight Californios to write the State's first constitution and became one of the first members of the state senate in 1849. For his role in the westward expansion of America, Vallejo has been highly recognized. The city of Vallejo, California, was named in his honor, a vineyard produces wines with his name, and, in 1965, the U.S. Navy commissioned the nuclear powered fleet ballistic missile submarine USS M. G. Vallejo (SSBN-658), one of "the forty-one for freedom," in honor of this distinguished Hispanic. (6:232-233)

THE CIVIL WAR

- When the Civil War broke out, the Mexican-American community was divided in loyalty. Approximately 1,000 joined the Union Army and another 2,550, the Confederate Force. (18:14)

- By the end of the war, as many as 9,900 Mexican-Americans fought. Most served in the regular army or volunteer units which were integrated. Some, however, served in predominately Mexican- American units with their own officers. Of the 40,000 volumes written about the Civil War, only one, Vaqueros in Blue and Gray, has been written about their contribution. (18:14)

- In 1863, the U.S. government established four military companies of Mexican-American Californians (the First Battalion of Native Cavalry) to utilize their "extraordinary horsemanship." At least 469 Mexican-Americans served under Major Salvador Vallejo, helping to defeat a Confederate invasion of New Mexico. (18:14-15) - Colonel Miguel E. Pino established the Second Regiment of New Mexico Volunteers. At least six independent militia companies commanded by Mexican-Americans were raised in New Mexico. Approximately 4,000 Mexican-Americans volunteered in these companies. (18:15) - In Texas, the Union established 12 Mexican-American companies (the First Regiment of Texas Cavalry). By and large, the officers were non-Hispanic, although there were some Mexican Texans serving as captains and lieutenants. (18:15)

- David G. Farragut was the most famous Union Hispanic. When he was nine years old he was appointed as a midshipman in the U.S. Navy. At 13 he served aboard the USS Essex during the War of 1812. In 1862, he successfully commanded Union forces and captured the city of New Orleans. In the Battle of Port Hudson (135 miles north of New Orleans) Farragut's tactics for attacking forts gained accolades. After orchestrating the capture of Mobile, Alabama, Farragut was commissioned Admiral of the Navy on July 26, 1866. He then took command of the European Squadron and while in the Mediterranean, he visited the birthplace of his father in Ciudadela, Minorca, where he received a hero's welcome. (18:17-18)

- Other Hispanics served in such Confederate units as the Benavides Regiment, the 10th Texas Cavalry, the 55th Alabama Infantry, Manigault's Battalion of South Carolina Artillery, the 6th Missouri Infantry, the Chalmette Regiment of Louisiana Infantry, and the Second Texas Mounted Rifles. (18:18)

- Colonel Santos Benavides was the highest ranking Mexican- American in the Confederate Army. He was one of the first to take up arms and one of the last to surrender. (18:18)

- Loretta Janet Velasquez, a Cuban-born woman, enlisted in the Confederate Army in 1860, masquerading as a man, without her soldier husband's knowledge. She fought at Bull Run, Ball's Bluff, and Fort Donelson, but was detected while in New Orleans and discharged. Undeterred, she re-enlisted and fought at Shiloh until unmasked once more. She then took duty as a spy, working in both male and female guise. Her husband died during the war and she married three more times, widowed in each instance. She later traveled throughout the West settling in Austin, Nevada. (18:20)

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR

- The catalyst for the Spanish-American War was the sinking of the battleship Maine on February 15, 1898. Historians have debated the cause of the Maine's demise for almost 100 years. Was it sabotage or was it an accident? Was the incident engineered by the American side to give the country an excuse for war? The loss of 260 American lives makes the latter theory unlikely. Admiral Hyman G. Rickover wrote a scholarly thesis on the subject, claiming that the explosion that ripped through the Maine's lower decks was caused by oily rags which led to an uncontrollable fire that ignited a magazine full of ammunition. Whatever the reason, the United States declared war on Spain on April 11, 1898, with the avowed purpose of freeing the oppressed Cubans. - During the Spanish-American War in 1898, there were several Hispanic members of Theodore Roosevelt's "Rough Riders." Captain Maximiliano Luna was the most distinguished Hispanic "Rough Rider." A military camp in New Mexico was named after him. After the Spanish American War, George Armijo, another Hispanic "Rough Rider," became a member of Congress. (18:22-23)

WORLD WAR I - At the beginning of World War I, Hispanics and others who lacked sufficient English skills were sent to training centers to improve their language proficiency and produce soldiers fully capable of being integrated into the army. Eventually a training plan to do so was established at Camp Gordon, Georgia. However, by the time the camp was operational the war was almost over. (18:24-25)

- Nicholas Lucero, a Hispanic, received the French Croix de Guerre during World War I for destroying two German machine gun nests and maintaining constant fire for three hours. (18:25)

- Marcelino Serna, received the Distinguished Service Cross for the single-handed capture of 24 enemy soldiers. His other decorations included: the French Croix de Guerre, the Victory Medal with three bars, and two Purple Hearts. (18:25)

- It was not until 1989 that the first Hispanic recipient of the Medal of Honor was recognized in a ceremony during Hispanic Heritage Week. David Barkley was awarded the Medal of Honor posthumously for bravery in action on the Meuse River, France, in November 1918. Barkely's Hispanic background did not come to light until 71 years after he gave his life for his country. (18:51)

- Other Hispanics did serve in World War I, but there are insufficient records to determine how many. (18:25)

WORLD WAR II

- Estimates for World War II range anywhere from 250,000 to 500,000 Hispanics served in the Armed Forces. Records are sketchy because, like the Census Bureau, the military did not closely track Hispanic members. However, Hispanic soldiers participated in all the major battles of World War II. (18:27- 33)

- Nevertheless, it is known that between 1940 and 1946, approximately 53,000 Puerto Ricans served. (18:27)

- With the exception of the Puerto Rican 65th Infantry Regiment, Hispanics did not serve in segregated units. (18:27)

- National Guard units, with large proportions of Mexican- Americans, served from Arizona, Texas, New Mexico, and California. (18:27)

- There were about 200 Puerto Rican women in the Women's Army Corps. (18:27)

- The New Mexico National Guard, with its large representation of Hispanics, became the largest single American unit in the Philippines. Their knowledge of Spanish was a definite asset as Spanish was a principal language in the Philippines. Because of this presence, many Hispanic-Americans were taken prisoner during the fall of the Philippines and participated in the "Bataan Death March." (18:27-28) - The first Hispanic Medal of Honor recipient of World War II was Private Jose P. Martinez. He was honored for his role in the 1943 American invasion of the Aleutian Islands. (18:28)

- One unit in particular, the 141st Infantry Regiment from Texas, had a high concentration of Hispanic soldiers. This distinguished unit saw 361 days of combat during World War II, earning three Medals of Honor, 31 Distinguished Service Crosses, 12 Legions of Merit, 492 Silver Stars, 11 Soldier's Medals, and 1685 Bronze Stars. (18:29)

- Hispanics were awarded 12 of the 431 Medals of Honor awarded during the Second World War. (18:52-57)

KOREAN WAR

- During the Korean War nine Hispanics received the Medal of Honor. (18:34)

- The Puerto Rican 65th Infantry Division was the only all- Hispanic Division to serve during the Korean War. It earned four Distinguished Service Crosses and 124 Silver Stars. (18:34)

- "Hero Street, USA," in Silvis, Illinois, a Chicago suburb, is so-named because it contributed more men to military service during World War II and Korea than any other place of comparable size. This street was home for a number of Hispanic families, and Silvis now has a monument to the eight Hispanic heroes who died during the two wars. (18:36)

- Captain Manuel J. Fernandez, USAF, an F-86 fighter pilot assigned to the 334th Squadron, 4th Fighter Interceptor Wing, was credited with 14.5 enemy kills in 125 missions. He was the third-ranked fighter pilot of the war and retired as a Colonel. (18:35)

THE VIETNAM WAR

- Precise figures are not available for Hispanic participation in Vietnam.

- Prior to the full-scale escalation of the Vietnam War, Special Forces Advisor, Sergeant First Class Isaac Camacho's fire base was overrun by Viet Cong in November 1963. After an intense firefight, Camacho was taken prisoner. He is most likely the first Hispanic POW of the Vietnam era. Remarkably, Camacho escaped his captors after 20 months and made his way to freedom. He was awarded the Silver and Bronze Stars in September 1965 and later promoted to Captain, U.S. Army. (18:37)

- Lieutenant Commander Everett Alvarez, Jr. (then Lieutenant JG) was the first American pilot taken as a prisoner of war and remained a prisoner longer than anyone else, eight and a half years. (18:38)

- On April 30, 1975, Master Sergeant Juan J. Valdez climbed aboard the last U.S. helicopter to depart the roof of the U.S. Embassy in Saigon. The U.S. presence in Vietnam, which spanned 18 years, ended. Valdez' presence gave credence to the Hispanic theme of participation in America's wars: "First in...last to leave." (18:40)

POST-VIETNAM ERA

- Approximately 80,000 Hispanics served in the Vietnam theater of operations and 13 won the Medal of Honor, 6 of them Marines. This is not unusual. Hispanics have received the highest honors to date in the U.S. Navy. As of 1990, six ships and three active submarines have been named for Hispanics, including the nuclear- powered 688 class fast attack submarine, USS San Juan, named after the capital city of Puerto Rico. Admiral Horacio Rivera became the first Hispanic four-star Admiral in 1979 and ultimately served as Vice Chief of Naval Operations. Between 1979-1980, Edward Hidalgo held the highly esteemed and powerful position of Secretary of the Navy. During Hidalgo's tenure, millions of dollars were committed to television advertising campaigns and new recruiting techniques to attract Hispanic youth to the Navy. (5:215)

DESERT SHIELD/STORM

- 20,000 Hispanic servicemen and women participated in Operation Desert Shield/ Storm. (3:45)

- According to Defense Manpower Data Center statistics, Hispanics comprised 7.9 percent of the Fleet Marine Force, 6.0 percent of the Navy, 4.2 percent of the Army and 3.1 percent of the Air Force representation in the Persian Gulf theater during the war.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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4. Johnson, Otto (ed). The 1993 Information Please Almanac. 46th ed. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1993.

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6. Meier, Matt S. Mexican American Biographies. New York: Greenwood Press, 1988.

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19. Webster, Yehudi O. The Racialization of America. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992.